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1.0 Executive Summary
The purpose of this paper is to identify major environmental impacts caused by the conflict during the period of war in Kosovo. We are going to elaborate concisely the main concerns that arise as a result of environmental degradation caused by the conflict. We have organized this paper based on the environmental impacts of the war in water, air, soil, and humans’ health. The paper discusses mostly the depleted uranium which is used in nuclear weapons and in the nuclear power making process during the war period, and the impact of toxic chemicals released from it. Further, the paper discusses also the risks that arise from penetrators lying on the surface of the ground, which could easily be picked up by people and cause a direct infection of their hands.
In addition, we presented the effects of the war in water (e.g. rivers and ground water). During the conflict in Kosovo all the refineries and machines that used oil derivatives were devastated and all its ingredients were released on water through rivers and underground waterways. Moreover, the paper debates about the impact of radioactive pollutants which were released as a result of bombing during the war period in Kosovo. To continue, when a penetrator was found on the surface of the ground, the soil below was normally contaminated. Finally, depleted uranium as a radioactive heavy metal is considered to be toxic and hazardous factor to human health.
2.0 Introduction
War is an organized conflict between two or more nations at the same time. It is a political violence which should be understood as an existing and international conflict between political communities. A war causes economic, social, political, and environmental losses to nations in conflict. Kosovo’s conflict in 1999 caused economic losses, many peoples’ death, and environmental degradation. Further, environmental damages caused by the conflicts are a top concern of health agents about health issues. Indeed, toxic wastes released from the depleted uranium during the war in Kosovo encounter to be very risky for human health. The contamination of areas from the depleted uranium could cause harmful effects on human health. Therefore, the areas that could have a potential effect from various hazardous materials used during the war are: rivers, soil, and air.
3.0 Environmental Impacts of the War in Kosovo
The conflict during 1998-1999 has caused many environmental problems to our country. Some of the environmental impacts of conflict are: the impact of war in rivers, air, land, nature, and health. Many studies have been undertaken by North Atlantic Treaty Organization during November, 2000 and many sample sizes has been analyzed in laboratories to identify weather there is any serious concern regarding the water and soil conditions. The paper aimed to detect weather the depleted uranium released during the conflict has had in the environment (Depleted Uranium in Kosovo, 2004). Furthermore, the studies done by NATO ‘field mission’ suggested that there is no need for a major concern regarding the radiation and it was not found any element of depleted uranium in soil, and rivers in Kosovo (Depleted Uranium in Kosovo, 2004). In addition, depleted uranium presents a very critical health problem. Depleted uranium is considered to be a very dangerous chemical for biological agents (Understanding of Health Effects from Depleted Uranium Evolving but Safety Training Needed, 2007). Despite the fact that wars cause a great damage to human life and the society as a whole, having now an advanced modern technology, wars have a greater devastation on the environment.
4.0 Depleted Uranium in Kosovo - What is DU?
DU is chemical element which is a specific isotope of uranium. Depleted uranium is derived as a by-product through the uranium enrichment process. DU is derivative of natural uranium which is known as U-235 which is an isotope, beyond others. Depleted uranium contains natural uranium but in reduced amounts, around 0.2-0.3%. DU is used in nuclear weapons and in the nuclear power making process. Natural uranium is part of heavy metals, unstable and highly radioactive which emits ions containing alpha, beta or gamma radioactive ryes. DU as derivative of Natural Uranium has similar characteristics. As a result of radioactivity the natural process of amount decreasing in the nature, half-life is quite long (around 4.5 years long). DU samples taken in Kosovo contained Uranium-236 and Plutonium 239 and 240. Those two isotopes are used are created during nuclear reactive processes. This fact increases the potential threat of diseases radioactive but the amounts found in the penetrators were very low (UNEP: Depleted Uranium in Kosovo).
(Karl W.B, S. (2006, March 22). Depleted uranium in India, spreading worldwide)
5.0 UNEP’s Mission in Kosovo
The UNEP studies in Kosovo showed that the material in the DU penetrators found there also contained traces of transuranic isotopes such as uranium-236 and plutonium-239/240 which are created during nuclear reactions. This indicates that at least part of the material in the penetrators had originated from the reprocessing of nuclear fuel. However, the amounts of these isotopes were very low and not significant in terms of the overall radioactivity of penetrators (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
After the 1999 conflict ended, a special international group of experts called the “Depleted Uranium Desk Assessment Group,” was established to assess the potential effects on human health and the environment arising from the possible use of DU. While they were on mission, the United Nations had no source of information or whatsoever on the use of depleted uranium during the war in Kosovo. However, the group still conducted a field mission in August 1999, during which it visited cities such as Prishtina, Klina, Peja and the areas around them that might have been targets of depleted uranium arms. The field mission did not find any evidence or sign of the use of depleted uranium at the locations visited, though. In preparing precautionary recommendations, the group concluded that it would not be meaningful to conduct further field searches for possible depleted uranium contamination without having the confirmation that it had indeed been used in Kosovo and without data on the corresponding targeted areas** (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
It was in October 1999 when the Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, requested NATO to provide information on the use of depleted uranium in Kosovo. NATO confirmed in February 2000 the use of DU during the Kosovo conflict and provided the UN with information consisting of a general map indicating the areas targeted and the total number of DU rounds fired. Yet, this information was not considered enough to develop a further field assessment because of the lack of detailed site coordinates (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
Further, NATO provided a detailed map indicating sites where depleted uranium munitions had been used. For each of the 112 attacks listed during which according to them depleted uranium ammunition had been used, they provided a table with the exact coordinates, including the quantity of rounds used each time.
Below is the graph identifying the sites where depleted uranium has been used by NATO:
(United Nations Environment Program, 2001)
Eventually, UNEP cooperating with some United Nations partner agencies were sent to Kosovo once more to conduct a field study revealing information on the environment.This field study was carried out from 5 – 19 November 2000, by a team composed of 14 experts from inter-governmental agencies, well-known institutions, and other interested parties. NATO, KFOR and UNMIK provided additional help. During the mission, soil, water and other samples were collected and sent for analysis to five laboratories well reputed in matters of radiological or toxicological analysis. The use of several laboratories allowed comparison of different methods for assessing impacts. Some areas, the teams were stopped due to the risk of mines and unexploded weaponry. Although one and a half years had passed since the Kosovo war, the UNEP team managed to find some slightly radioactive material in many areas, including penetrators and jackets with depleted uranium ammunition.
Below is a picture of a penetrator found in one of the sites:
(United Nations Environment Program, 2001)
The samples that have been collected around the areas where depleted uranium had been used have shown that depleted uranium dust was also present. UNEP came to the conclusion that the amount found did not present any great threat to the environment, however, it has recommended several precautionary measures, including the marking the depleted uranium areas and decontaminating them when possible. In the areas most at risk of groundwater contamination, UNEP recommended the monitoring of the water quality.
Below is a graph representing the findings:
(UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
Notes on Table 3.1: the columns of figures represent the number of samples in each category from each site. The number of contamination points located, the numbers of penetrators and jackets found, and the approximate number of DU rounds fired against the site, are also shown. ‘Contamination points’ are those very localized areas, often holes in the road, which were identified as being DU-contaminated, but at which no penetrator or jacket was found. In addition, the soil underneath any penetrators and jackets located was most often shown to be contaminated. All penetrators and jackets were removed from the sites (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
As big as the concern of the effects of depleted uranium on the population and the people on the mission conducting information on field is, a great concern was also on behalf of the effects it had on military personnel. Three major risks were a threat: first of all, despite the fact that there were obvious risks from the depleted uranium, there were additional ones which could not have been dealt by the UNEP at the time. Secondly, during the field mission, loose contamination might have presented a danger, requiring protectionist measures.
To continue, this risk was that the vehicles that had been destroyed were not found in the aftermath, which presents the possibility that a clean-up by military had already been done. And thirdly, some areas where depleted uranium was used still impose the threat of unexploded ordnance; some sites have not been de-mined yet. Obviously, the problem here is that de-miming has to be done by exploding the mines, which then consequently could increase the amount of depleted uranium and its dust (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000). However, depleted uranium as a post-war consequence is definitely not the single environmental problem in Kosovo. Yet, it is an further negative factor that contributes to the whole picture. The international community, and organizations such as NATO or KFOR, as well as the local one, should take action and contribute to the process of removing all possible depleted uranium risks, especially because some of the depleted uranium still lies in the mines which have not been removed yet.
6.0 Findings and Effects of DU
In general, the DU dust is gradually transported into the upper soil layer by water, insects and worms. Another alternative of the dust being distributed might be the wind, rainwater, or surface water flow. Corresponding to the variation in chemical characteristics of soils and rocks, the effects of buried penetrators on the environment differ. The mobilization of DU in the soil profile and its possible contamination of groundwater will depend on a range of factors such as the chemistry and structure of the surrounding soil, rainfall and hydrology (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
When human beings are exposed to Depleted Uranium, the effects of it can be radiological, because of its radiation, as well as chemical because of the biochemical effects it has in the human body. Consequently, these can lead to cancer and failure of body organs, such as the kidneys, depending on the amount of exposure. However, some argue that because of the physical and chemical characteristics that Depleted Uranium has, it is more likely to spread in soil than if it was only natural uranium. The concern with Depleted Uranium spreading into the ground is also relevant to the concerns and risks it might have for future contamination of groundwater and, ultimately, drinking water supplies (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
6.1 Environmental Threats and Risks in the Future
One of the major risks is that Penetrators lying on the surface of the ground present is that they can easily be picked up by people. If picked up, one direct possible consequence is an infection of the hands. An additional possible consequence is the external beta radiation on the skin if a person put the penetrator in his or her pocket or used it as an ornament on a neck chain. Is that was the case, it would mean that the skin of the person would continually be exposed to the threat. However, even though exposed to it for several weeks, there will not be seen any skin burns from it. The resulting gamma radiation exposure will be insignificant and, at most, of the same order of magnitude as natural radiation. So eventually, penetrates, wither on the surface and or in the ground may dissolve after a time and slowly contaminate the groundwater and the drinking water (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
Having all this said, the amount of the radiation doses will be very low. Nevertheless, the consequential concentration of uranium might exceed the World Health Organization’s standards, especially when it comes to drinking water. But still, like mentioned earlier it depends in great amounts on the local circumstances and the chemical and physical characteristics of the Depleted Uranium penetrators, soil and groundwater (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
7.0 Environmental Impacts of War in Water
Water is one of the living elements that were polluted during the war in Kosovo in 1999. During the conflict, the pollution mostly was created by oil and oil derivatives as well as acids, alkalis and phenols. The waters polluted include the country’s rivers and its ground water. Although both create terrible consequences, one the one hand, river pollution is easier to manage since the oil flows and acids and alkalis are quickly diluted, whereas phenols hydrolyze. Despite the fact of the water flowing, there is sediment that might contain toxic substances which can react if the water its chemical conditions change, such as the water pH, oxidation, reduction or any other chemical agent. On the other hand, pollution of ground water is a more serious issue since water can flows in a slower pace and is restricted by self-purification. In all, 46 water samples were taken and analyzed in laboratories. They were taken from 10 of the 11 sites. The uranium concentration varies from 6.5 10-6 to 2.15 10-3 mg U/kg water. There are no signs of DU in water (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
Underground water being the main water source for many households and industries in Kosovo, the pollution of it may become a major problem for the Kosovar citizens. The fighting and bombing along the river banks created much of this feared pollution, however, it still did not occur to a catastrophic ecological scale. There are many ways in which water could be polluted, including pollution through the surface of it or by soaking through bank sediments of rivers. Here, oil is the main pollutant in waters. During the conflict in 1999 all the refineries and machines that used oil or oil derivatives were destroyed and all its materials were released on water through underground channels or by rivers (Le Monde Diplomatique).
8.0 Environmental Impacts of War in Air
Air is another important element of life that was affected during the war in Kosovo. Because air moves, through wind and air currents in general, it causes the pollutants to move along with it spreading the possible health problems of the population in different directions to different regions. Therefore, substances like phosgene and vinyl-chloride can be found in not only one region, but are spread into a larger scale of the country. In some areas where winds and rain in great amounts are common, it was easier to escape from the caused pollution since some of the substances decomposed in rain. Other pollutants have been released in the atmosphere; their result cannot be seen immediately (Le Monde Diplomatique).
Other pollutants have been released in atmosphere and their result cannot be seen immediately. In addition there are radioactive pollutants which were results of bombing from NATO. Based on some reports, “NATO has used depleted uranium (DU) ammunition in the conflict” (Le Monde diplomatique). So, NATO’s representatives confirmed that they used depleted uranium in shells A-10 Thunderbolt 30 mm anti-tank where each of them contained 275 grams of depleted uranium (Le Monde Diplomatique).
Furthermore, depleted uranium is a very radioactive and toxic substance that can be transformed into mobile aerosols. Thus, some substances that are used in the bombing weaponry may contain cancerogenic substances which are very dangerous for human health. Even though NATO contributed in political issues and solving the conflict, it also disrespected laws and policies for the environment by causing damages to the environment. For example, when NATO bombed industrial and chemical places and oil refineries “installations were reported to have caused the release of pollutants, although the exact extent of this is presently unknown” (Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing).
In addition to legal issues NATO’s action are not in accordance with environmental protocols and articles. Also, to that protocol there is another article which states “Care shall be taken in warfare to protect the natural environment against widespread, long-term and severe damage. This protection includes a prohibition of the use of methods or means of warfare which are intended or may be expected to cause such damage to the natural environment and thereby to prejudice the health or survival of the population (Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing).
10.0 Environmental Effects of War in Soil
During the NATO bombing in Kosovo the majority of ammunition and artillery did not always hit the armored targets. Thus, from around 30,000 rounds used the majority hit the ground which caused the contamination of those areas. From the results and samples that were taken from places that were hit the contamination was high. “When a penetrator (or jacket) was found on the surface of the ground, the soil below was normally contaminated” (UNEP, 2000). However the contamination level decreased drastically as farer the sample was taken from the contamination points. But the contamination, even in minimum, could be measured to 50m distance from the contamination point. Contamination points are the exact places where the penetrators, made from DU, hit the ground causing high level of contamination. “The relative concentration of DU at such a point could be high, up to 100 % of the uranium content of a soil sample” (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
The ammunition that NATO used against armored targets, especially vehicles, was 25 or 30 mm caliber. So the depth of round that hit the soil varied from 20cm to 2m, depended from the structure of the ground, whether it was a rock, wet soil or road. However, in the upper 20 cm of the ground the highest level of contamination was measured. Additional to that is the reconstruction boom that occurred in Kosova after the war. That had a huge impact on the restructuration of the ground and mixed the contaminated soil in some places of Kosovo. This phenomenon decreased the level of contamination around 25% in 7 years. The contamination of the ground was measured mainly by the quantity of DU found in a kilogram of soil. “The absolute concentration of DU in soil varied from a few mg DU/kg soil, up to about 18 g DU/kg soil” (UNEP Scientific Mission to Kosovo, 2000).
11.0 Environmental Impacts of War in Populations’ Health
Depleted uranium as a radioactive heavy metal is considered to be toxic and a radiological factor to human health. Depleted uranium being radioactive is a considerable factor on affecting the organs malfunction and can lead to cancer disease, particularly kidney cancer. However, according to United States’ General Accounting Office the risk from depleted uranium on causing cancer is lower because the depleted uranium is less radioactive than natural or enriched uranium and its impact is insignificant (Durante et al. 238).
The recent war in Kosovo is a cause of many concerns related to health problems that could arise from DU (depleted uranium). From the hazardous materials released from DU, the most dangerous one is ‘chemical toxicity’ (Durante et al. 238). Based on literature available, the main worry regarding the uranium is the risk from its radioactivity rather than to any risks that could cause health problems such as: cancer (Durante et al. 238). Further, some studies have been done in Balkan in order to identify any health problems that could be an issue as a result of released toxic wastes from depleted uranium. Insofar, as one can see, many health risks toward the general public could be critical for future evaluation of those hazardous materials released during the conflict in Kosovo. Further, one of the main health threats from radioactivity is the contamination of soil and water areas. (Durante et al. 238). Thus, material toxic wastes released in rivers and in soil in different areas around Kosovo region, present a critical issue to take into consideration. In 1999, the United Nations Environmental Program conducted a study where water, soil, and biological samples where measured in order to evaluate whether rivers, lands, and organisms contain any chemical toxicity. UNDP results confirm a very low radioactive contamination in present in soil, water and, in other biological organisms (Radio Ecological Survey, 2001).
War in Kosovo is considered multifaceted; with long lasting consequences it has caused a massive amount of death of population. The deep and overwhelming consequences that war caused in Kosovo’s population were toward health issues, and diversity issues. The effects had been physical, psychological, chemical and biological stressors. The population of Kosovo was effected in different ways; some of them may decrease over time and some may have permanent effects in the health of it. For example, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), where 15 years or older citizen of Kosovo are found that 17.1% (95% CI 13.2%-21.0%) reported symptoms of PTSD; this disease is followed by the symptoms of depression, nightmares, anxiety, feelings of guilt, sleep and disturbance (Word Psychiatry, 2006). The effect of war has lead to the increase of the risk of other disorders such as suicide, use of alcohol, lasting permanent physical effects, emotional trauma; which is long lasting and includes headaches, problems with immune system and generalized pain, revenge issues, when the amount of Men was 89% and women 90% that have shown strong feelings of hatred towards the population of Serbs, while the amount of 44% of men and 33% of women give a strong statement that if they have the capability they would act against Serbian military forces. The total amount of deaths in the war of Kosovo, caused by Serbs has increased the attention of the whole world. Approximately 90% of the death in this war was done due to civilians (Word Psychiatry, 2006).
The composed data of mortality in Kosovo from the period of the conflict from February 1998 till June 1999 includes 1197 households compromising 8605 people in which 64% of 105 deaths in population are recognized to war trauma, corresponding to the death of 12.000 in the whole population. The mortality of men who were part of military, especially those between the age of 15 and 49 has a high rate of trauma. Moreover, those who were over the age of 50 have the highest rate at all of mortality. The reason why they were affected more significant is because they were less mobile and more influenced to the risk of dying (Effects of the War in the Area of Former Yugoslavia, 2012).
War in Kosovo has also had effects on the diversity; it has caused migration of the population and caused people to leave their homes and become refugees; around 800 000 people have gone to other countries such as Montenegro, Albania, Macedonia, Germany, London, Italy and in the end of the war in July, a total of 770 000 refugees returned to their homes in Kosovo. The war in Kosovo in terms of loss of disability-adjusted based on the World Health Organization is ranked in the sixteenth place, and by the end of 2020 it is projected that it will be ranked in the eighth place (War and Mortality in Kosovo, 2000).
12.0 Conclusions and Recommendations
In brief, the war in Kosovo has caused many economic, social, and environmental problems. Additionally, the conflict of 1999 is a source of environmental concern of the main environmental agents. Toxic materials from depleted uranium during the conflict time are critical for human health. Environmental impacts of war in water, soil, air, and humans and humans’ health are presented. Finally, based on many reports, papers, studies being done by internationals (e.g. NATO, UNEP, and UNDP) and other available materials from the internet, we can conclude that Kosovo conflict has neither caused an environmental catastrophe in our country nor in the Balkans region.
13.0 References
United Nations Environment Programme and the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat. (1999). The Kosovo Conflict, Consequences for the Environment & Human Settlements. Retrieved October 9, 2012, from http://www.grid.unep.ch/btf/final/finalreport.pdf
Hall, S., & Shaw, C. (1999, July 3). Troops 'may face gulf syndrome'. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved September 18, 2011, fromhttp://www.guardian.co.uk/world/1999/jul/03/balkans.armstrade
Shah, A. (2001, July 14). Effects of Bombing on the Environment — Global Issues. **Global Issues: social, political, economic and environmental issues that affect us all — Global Issues. Retrieved September 19, 2011, from* [http://www.globalissues.org/article/131/effects-of-bombing-on-the-environment]
United Nations Environment Programme. (2001). Depleted Uranium in Kosovo- Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment, 27-39. Retrieved September 18, 2011, from http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/uranium.pdf
Damoah, A. (n.d.). Effects of the Kosovo Conflict | eHow.com. eHow | How to Videos, Articles & More - Discover the expert in you. | eHow.com. Retrieved October 9, 2012, from http://www.ehow.com/list_7369472_effects-kosovo-conflict.html
Sihna, Kumar Manoj.(2001) "Protection of the Environment During Armed Conflicts- A Case Study of Kosova" www.worldii.orghttp://www.worldlii.org/int/journals/ISILYBIHRL/2001/13.html
Snihs, Jan. "Use of Depleted Uranium in Military Conflicts and Possible Impact on Health and Environment." Swedish Radiation Protection Institute, n.d. Web. 14 Oct. 2012. <http://www.irpa.net/irpa10/cdrom/01292.pdf>
UNMIK - Provisional Institutions Of Self-Government. (2003, April 26). Kosovo State of The Environment Report. Retrieved October 31, 2012, fromhttp://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/Kosovo_SOE_part1.pdf
Environmental impact of the Yugoslavian Conflict (Le Monde Diplomatique). (n.d.). Le Mondediplomatique. Retrieved November 4, 2012, fromhttp://www.mondediplomatique.fr/cahier/kosovo/ecologie-rapport
Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing. (n.d.). www.icty.org. Retrieved November 6, 2012, [http://www.icty.org/x/file/About/OTP/otp_report_nato
Durante, Marco. "Depleted Uranium Residual Radiological Risk Assessment for Kosovo Sites." N.p., 2001 Oct. 2001. Web. 1 Nov. 2012. <http://www.pdhealth.mil/downloads/DU_resid.pdf>.
Murthy R. Srinivasa and Lakshiminarayna R. Word Psychiatry., Feb. 2006. Web. 4 Oct. 2012. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1472271/
Flögel M. and Lauc G. War Stress – Effects of the War in the Area of Former Yugoslavia. Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia, n.d. Web. 4 Oct. 2012. <http://www.nato.int/du/docu/d010306c.pdf>.
Spiegel P.B. and Salama, War and Mortality in Kosovo, 1998--99: An Epidemiological Testimony. P, 24 June 2000. Web. 4 Oct. 2012.<http://conflict.lshtm.ac.uk/media/Kosovo_Mortality_in_Kosovo_Spiegel_Salama_Lancet_2001.pdf>.
Depleted Uranium in Kosovo." UNEP, 19 Nov. 2000. Web. 6 Nov. 2012.
"Understanding of Health Effects From Depleted Uranium Evolving but Safety Training Needed." GAO, Mar. 2000. Web. 6 Nov. 2012.<http://www.gao.gov/new.items/ns00070.pdf>.
Durante, Marco. "Depleted Uranium Residual Radiological Risk Assessment for Kosovo Sites." N.p., 2001 Oct. 2001. Web. 1 Nov. 2012.<http://www.pdhealth.mil/downloads/DU_resid.pdf>.
Appendix 1.0
Organization of the Group Members during the Project Flow
All the group members of the project contributed to the final output. We worked together as a group and helped each other in finding sources related to the topic (e.g. articles, reports, papers, etc). We first gathered different reports and papers related to the topic and summarized the main points. Later, we started writing briefly about the main points in a little bit more detail and finally, gathered all the important information at one place and finalized the project. Once done, each of us went briefly through the work individually and checked for comprehesion, spelling, missing evidence, source citations etc. We enjoyed working together,got along very well with one another and were quite enthusiastic about the paper.